• A4/ Analyse physicochimique du sol

    Comparer 2 sols par leur porosité et composition chimique

    Mise en évidence des principaux constituants d’un sol

    Partie 1 : Mesure approchée de la porosité totale d’un sol

    Matériel : Tube PVC, sol, gaze ou tissu type collant, marteau, planchette, élastiques, bécher ou mini-bac, potence avec mâchoire, marqueur, bouchon ,chiffon

    • Placer un volume de sol séché (à l’étuve à 40°C pendant 3 jours) dans le tube équipé d’une gaze ou tissu type collant, appelé aussi carotte. Remplir avec marteau et bloc en bois. Remettre une autre gaze à l'extrémité supérieure ou tissu type collant. Maintenir à l'aide d'élastiques.

    • Remplir d'eau au 2/3 le récipient (bécher ou mini-bac)

    • Relever le niveau d'eau avec un marqueur sur la paroi.

    • Mettre une potence de telle sorte que le tube PVC soit accroché et plongé dans l'eau

    • Placer celui-ci au dessus du bécher ou mini-bac.

    • Plonger l'ensemble de telle sorte que le tube soit immergé, sans toucher le fond.

    • Relever aussitôt le niveau d'eau avec un marqueur sur la paroi.

    • Laisser 20 minutes.

    • (Pendant ce temps d’attente réaliser une des expériences de la partie 2).

     

    - Rétablir au bout des 20 minutes le niveau d'eau avec une éprouvette graduée. Noter le volume V1

    • Calculer le volume de la carotte

    • Le volume V1 mesure le volume libre total entre les particules du sol, c'est-à-dire la porosité totale.

    V1 x 100

    Porosité totale = _________________________

    Volume de la carotte

     

     

    Partie 2 : Détermination des minéraux [un protocole parmi a), b), c), d) et e) ]

     

    1. du calcium

    Matériel : sol , pipette, poires, gants,lunettes, entonnoir, tubes à essai, bêcher, filtre, solution de NACl, solution d'oxalate d'ammonium, bouchon, chiffon

    • Mettre ~ 1 g de sol dans un tube à essai et recouvrir de 5 mL de solution de NaCl.

    • Agiter vigoureusement, laisser décanter puis filtrer.

    • Mettre 1 mL de d’oxalate d’ammonium à 50g/L dans un autre tube à essai et ajouter 1 mL de filtrat.

    • L’apparition d’un précipité blanc d’oxalate de calcium traduit la présence de calcium.

     

    1. Détermination du fer

    Matériel : sol , pipette, poires , lunettes, gants, entonnoir, tubes à essai, bêcher, filtre, solution de HCl, eau distillée, solution de ferrocyanure de potassium, bouchon, chiffon

    • Mettre 1g de sol dans un tube à essai et recouvrir avec 2 mL d’acide chlorhydrique pour solubiliser les sels de fer.

    • Agiter vigoureusement et recouvrir avec 5 mL d’eau distillée.

    • Agiter, laisser décanter puis filtrer.

    • Mettre 1 mL de ferrocyanure de potassium dans un autre tube à essai et ajouter 1 mL de filtrat.

    • L’apparition d’une coloration bleu (bleu de prusse) traduit la présence de fer (Fe3+).

     

    1. Détermination de potassium

    Matériel : sol , pipette, poires, lunettes, gants, entonnoir, tubes à essai, bêcher, filtre, solution de cobaltinitrite, eau distillée, bouchon, chiffon

    • Mettre 1 g de sol dans un tube à essai et recouvrir avec 5 mL d’eau distillée.

    • Agiter vigoureusement, laisser décanter puis filtrer.

    • Mettre 1 mL de cobaltinitrite de sodium dans un autre tube à essai et ajouter 1 mL de filtrat.

    • La formation d’un précipité jaune indique la présence de potassium.

     

    1. Détermination de phosphate

    Matériel : sol , pipette, poires, lunettes, gants, entonnoir, tubes à essai, bêcher, filtre, eau distillée, réactif d'ammoniaco-magnésium, bouchon, chiffon

     

    • Mettre 1 g de sol dans un tube à essai et recouvrir avec 5 mL d’eau distillée.

    • Agiter vigoureusement, laisser décanter puis filtrer.

    • Mettre 1 mL de réactif d'ammoniaco-magnésium dans un autre tube à essai et ajouter 1 mL de filtrat.

    • La formation d’un précipité blanc indique la présence de phosphate.

     

    1. Détermination des nitrates et des nitrites

    Matériel : sol , pipette, poires, lunettes, gants, entonnoir, tubes à essai, bêcher, filtre, eau distillée, allumette, réactif au sulfate ferreux ou diphénylamine sulfurique, bouchon, chiffon

    • Mettre 1 g de sol dans un tube à essai et recouvrir avec 5 mL d’eau distillée.

    • Agiter vigoureusement, laisser décanter puis filtrer.

    • Mettre 1 mL de diphénylamine sulfurique ou de réactif au sulfate ferreux dans un autre tube à essai et ajouter 1 mL de filtrat.

    • La présence de nitrates ou/et nitrites se traduit par l’apparition d’une coloration bleu violet avec le réactif à la diphénylamine, rose-violacée avec le réactif au sulfate de fer.

     

    Partie 3 Détermination de la matière organique

     

    - Matériel : sol , pipette, poires, lunettes, gants, tubes à essai, bêcher, eau de Javel, bec bunsen, allumette, pince en bois, chiffon

    Préparer 2 tubes à essai en y introduisant 1 cm de sol et 5 mL d’eau de Javel, agiter pour mélanger

    • Porter un des 2 tubes à ébullition en faisant attention de ne pas provoquer de projection et de ne pas respirer les vapeurs sortant du tube.

    • Comparer la coloration des 2 tubes : l’eau de Javel détruit la matière organique, ce qui se traduit par une décoloration.


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  • (Image: A. M. Thierry - Ancel/CNRS - IPEV)

    If you spent most of the day huddled on the ice sheets of Antarctica, you'd turn blue too.

    Emperor penguins live and breed in a harsher climate than any other species of bird. Temperatures at the bottom of the world can fall as low as -40 °C, and winds up to 40 metres per second whip across the landscape. With no windbreaks to protect them, the penguins are forced to pack together tightly.

    To study how the animals cope, Dominic McCafferty at the University of Glasgow, UK, and colleagues used a thermal imaging camera to photograph groups of emperor penguins on islands off the coast of East Antarctica. The camera revealed how much heat the birds were losing to the surrounding air.

    Surprisingly, the images revealed that the surfaces of the penguins' bodies – shown as dark blue in the photo above – were colder than the sub-zero air around them. That suggests they were losing almost no heat at all.

    But the freezing conditions could be the least of the penguins' worries as rising temperatures threaten to destroy their habitats.

    Journal reference: Biology Letters, doi.org/mgj

    http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn23502-blue-with-cold-emperor-penguins-have-a-freezing-exterior.html


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  • http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn23401-emerging-consciousness-glimpsed-in-babies.html

    A glimpse of consciousness emerging in the brains of babies has been recorded for the first time. Insights gleaned from the work may aid the monitoring of babies under anaesthesia, and give a better understanding of awareness in people in vegetative states – and possibly even in animals.

    The human brain develops dramatically in a baby's first year, transforming the baby from being unaware to being fully engaged with its surroundings. To capture this change, Sid Kouider at the Ecole Normale Supérieure in Paris, France, and colleagues used electroencephalography (EEG) to record electrical activity in the brains of 80 infants while they were briefly shown pictures of faces.

    In adults, awareness of a stimulus is known to be linked to a two-stage pattern of brain activity. Immediately after a visual stimulus is presented, areas of the visual cortex fire. About 300 milliseconds later other areas light up, including the prefrontal cortex, which deals with higher-level cognition. Conscious awareness kicks in only after the second stage of neural activity reaches a specific threshold. "It's an all-or-nothing response," says Kouider.

    Adults can verbally describe being aware of a stimulus, but a baby is a closed book. "We have learned a lot about consciousness in people who can talk about it, but very little in those who cannot," says Tristan Bekinschtein at the University of Cambridge, who was not involved in the work.

    Signature of awareness

    Kouider and his colleagues wanted to see if a similar signature of conscious awareness was present in pre-verbal infants. They put EEG caps on groups of babies aged 5, 12 and 15 months, recording brain activity as the babies were shown a series of rapidly changing images. Most of the images were randomly patterned ovals, but among them was a face, fleetingly displayed for between 17 and 300 milliseconds.

    Each group responded to the face with the expected two-stage pattern. But the second stage – the activity linked to conscious awareness – was a much slower and less distinct response in the 5-month-old babies than in the older groups.

    In 12-month-old babies the second stage of activity arrived 800 to 900 milliseconds after the image was displayed. The 15-month-old group showed a very similar response. In the youngest infants, there was a delay of more than one second before the second pattern appeared. In adults, the second pattern shows up after 300 milliseconds, on average.

    "Babies have the same mechanisms as adults but they are very slow," says Kouider. "There are things happening in the brain but they are unable to deal with the information."

    Not proof

    Kouider is careful to note that the results do not offer direct evidence of subjective experience. Although the babies' changing brain activity highlights the development of visual perception, it is not yet clear when the second-stage timings become short enough for awareness to kick in. "I don't know what proof would look like," says Natasha Sigala at the Brighton and Sussex Medical School, UK. "This is as good as it gets for the moment."

    The observed brain activity is consistent with what we know from anatomical studies. In young infants, neurons are not yet fully covered with myelin – a fatty insulating sheath. This physiological immaturity explains the delayed signals seen in 5-month-old babies, says Kouider. Developing brains also have more connections than mature ones ( these connections get pruned as different regions become dedicated to certain activities), and the early glut of connections would also disrupt brain signals, he says.

    "The results give a really good handle on visual awareness in infancy," says Sigala. It may also help explain why we are unable to form memories at a very young age, she says. "My personal view would be we cannot have memory without perception in place."

    Ron Chrisley at the Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science at the University of Sussex, UK, suggests that if similar patterns of brain activity were found in animals, then it would be a good basis for attributing consciousness to non-humans – though lacking that pattern should not count against them. "There might be more than one way in this universe to be conscious," he says.

    Journal reference: Science, DOI: 10.1126/science.1232509


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  • "Dodo Birds". Black and amber chalk on cream paper. By Roelandt Savery, ca. 1626. Public Domain; click for source

    Any animated film starring pirates, Charles Darwin, and a dodo is going to be worthy of mention here, but Aardman Animations — of Wallace & Gromit and Chicken Run fame — has outdone itself with “The Pirates!: Band of Misfits”. I missed its theatrical run. But I happened to catch it recently and I think it’s well worth your time, especially if, like me, you enjoy witty, screwball comedies.

    Here’s a taste: http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/artful-amoeba/2013/05/22/pirates-charles-darwin-and-one-very-un-extinct-dodo/

    As soon as I saw her, it was obvious the pirates’ “parrot” Polly was a dodo. Which was a bit unexpected, considering the film also features Charles Darwin and Queen Victoria. By that time, dodos had been dead as … well, dodos for well over 100 years. This goes on to become a major plot point in the film.

    Dodos were giant flightless pigeons endemic to the Indian Ocean island of Mauritius, east of the coast of Madagascar. The species went extinct sometime in the late 1600s, barely 100 years after their discovery by Portuguese sailors. Although hungry Dutch traders and other seamen have historically been blamed for the loss by eating the naive birds, feral introduced animals like pigs may have been the larger force. Regardless, the world is poorer for it. At least for two hours, I got to pretend there was at least one left, which was fun. One quibble: actual dodos reached about 3 feet high and weighed at least 20 pounds — possibly as much as 40. The bird in the film seems to be adorably chicken-sized.

    This movie was based on the first book a series called “The Pirates! In An Adventure with Scientists”. That was also the film’s title in the United Kingdom. Strangely, the subtitle was changed to “Band of Misfits” in America, Australia, and New Zealand. Hypotheses abound on the reason, including US audiences’ presumed distaste for science and certain Americans’ known distaste for Charles Darwin.

    Certainly, it’s not the first time a UK title has been changed to make it more palatable or “understandable” to Americans (“Sorcerer’s” Stone, anyone?). And don’t get me started on the shamefulness of replacing Sir David Attenborough’s timeless narration and script with a dumbed-down Oprah version, as was done to the US version of “Life“. Still, considering they didn’t change the content, if a new subtitle got more American backsides into “Pirates” movie theater seats, I can’t object too much.


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  • http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=infant-tooth-reveals-neandertal-breastfeeding-habits

    An analysis of chemicals in primate teeth shows that a Neandertal infant nursed exclusively for a little more than 7 months

    neandertal tooth

    By measuring the relative amounts of barium and calcium on a tooth's growth lines, scientists showed that a Neandertal infant probably switched to a solid diet relatively early. Image: Ian Harrowell, Christine Austin, and Manish Arora

    The changing ratios of calcium and barium in the teeth of modern humans and macaques chronicle the transition from mother’s milk to solid food — and may provide clues about the weaning habits of Neandertals, a new study suggests.

    The predominant mineral in the tooth enamel of primates is hydroxyapatite, a form of calcium phosphate. But trace elements present in the bloodstream that are chemically similar to calcium, such as strontium and barium, can be incorporated into enamel as it calcifies, says Manish Arora, an environmental chemist at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York. Teeth begin forming in the gums before birth, and they record daily growth lines throughout their development, so they are good archives of diet and chemical exposure — even in infants.

    Previous research has shown that variations in the strontium-to-calcium ratio preserved in teeth provide insight into infant diet, including the age at which children were weaned.

    In the new study, Arora and his colleagues looked at barium-to-calcium ratios in the teeth of macaques and humans with known diet and breastfeeding habits, including 'baby teeth' shed by children who had been part of a broader medical study.

    The results showed that little if any barium was transferred to either humans or macaques before birth, says Arora. But the proportion of barium recorded in tooth enamel shot up immediately after birth, because breast milk contains high levels of the element. Ratios waned as mothers began to supplement the infants’ diet with other food, and then dropped to low levels when breastfeeding ceased, the researchers report in Nature.

    Dental demographics
    But the study's most intriguing data may be those gleaned from the tooth of a Neandertal infant. The results suggest that the infant was exclusively breastfed for a little over 7 months, and then the mother’s milk was supplemented with other food for another 7 months. After that, barium levels dropped rapidly, suggesting a sudden end to breastfeeding.

    Arora says that 14 months is relatively early to wean a child: humans in non-industrial societies stop breastfeeding at an average age of about 2.5 years.

    The team's results were based on a single sample of Neandertal tooth, which makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions. Perhaps Neandertals typically weaned their young more quickly than humans, suggesting that they may have had children at shorter intervals, says Louise Humphrey, an anthropologist at the Natural History Museum in London. But she says it is also possible that the abrupt end to breastfeeding indicates that the infant’s mother may have fallen ill or died.

    Both scenarios have profound implications for Neandertal social structure, says Humphrey. A mother with a large brood would probably have required help with child care — suggesting that Neandertal families and group members routinely assisted each other. And if weaning occurred because the mother was ill or absent, individuals such as siblings or other adult relatives might have stepped in to help raise the orphan, since a previous study suggested that the infant lived to age 8. “Regardless, we have to accept that there were other adults caring for this individual,” says Humphrey.

    Weaning age affects many aspects of human demographics, including the minimum time between a woman’s pregnancies, says Holly Smith, a palaeoanthropologist at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. That, in turn, affects the overall rate of population growth. Analysis of teeth found at archaeological sites, therefore, could help researchers infer demographic information about ancient populations.


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